Early Bronze Age 3100-2000
BCE |
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EBI 3100-2900 BCE | EBII 2900-2700 BCE |
EBIII 2700-2400 BCE | EBIV2400-2000 BCE
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| EBI-II Transition is often associated with the first "Urban Revolution'
in Canaan. There is an obvious shift from open/unwalled settlements of a
non-urban society to a hierarchy of fortified settlements. Interactions between
Egyptian pre-dynastic or Naqada culture and Early Old Kingdom dynasts existed,
particularly within the region of Southern Canaan, as well as an increased
presence of northern cultures, originating in Mesopotamia. In EB II we see
a rapid increase in the development of urbanized cities that were primarily
reliant upon agricultural production. For a yet unexplained reason, some
people were leaving their previous nomadic/pastoral lifestyles to take up
permanent settlement within these urban centers. The implementation of this
new system, whether it be because of agricultural advancement, trade or both,
brought about the organization of city-states, the concept of government,
and writing. Conflict then erupted amongst these city-states, resulting in
the organization of defenses. As a result of the vast geographic variances
of the Syro-Palestinian region, the formation of global governmental systems
like those found in Mesopotamia and Egypt did not occur. The termination
of EB III is most often associated with an invasion into southern Syria and
Palestine by the so-called 'Amorites'. The 'Amorites' have been identified
as a nomadic group that migrated southward from Mesopotamia, reaching all
the way into Egypt. Current academic circles question the existence of this
group or their supposed usurping migration into the area of Palestine. What
can be said is that a noticeable shift occurred in population density throughout
the region, the reason for this shift is still undetermined. |
| HIGHLIGHTS: Construction of the
Giza Pyramids by 4th Dynasty Pharaohs in Egypt (c. 2614-2494 BCE). Also of
note are the kingdoms of Urartu and Sumer in the region of the Euphrates
and Tigris Rivers of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq). First samples of writing
in Sumer (c. 3100 BCE) and shortly thereafter in Egypt. |
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Middle Bronze Age 2000-1550
BCE |
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MB I 2000-1800 BCE | MB II 1800-1650 BCE
| MB III 1650-1550 BCE
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| MBI cultures saw a re-growth from the previously destroyed EB
III culture and the transitional/intermediate period of EB IV. There is no
set explanation as to this resurgence, though it has been attributed to (though
not limited to) improvements in climate, increase in trade, well-developed
industries like copper manufacture and pottery, or a combination of all.
In the south, Egypt, also having just come out of their First Intermediary
Period (c. 2180-2133 BCE) saw a return to stability with the establishment
of their Middle Kingdom. Often noted as the pinnacle of Ancient Egyptian
culture, the wealth and stability of this empire inevitably trickled towards
Canaan. Because of heightened trade relations between 12th Dynasty Egypt
and the powerful Mesopotamian Empire of Ur a rise in occupation of modern-day
Israel's coastal areas occurred with fortified cities being constructed along
overland trade routes. A standard trend of re-occupation of EB sites by MB
I cultures has been noted, though with a slight difference. Other than the
occasional fort, the settlement pattern of MB I is identified as urban centers
flanked by satellite villages. The actual importance of the Syro-Palestinian
region to the more prominent trading empires range from that of primary military
and economic importance (i.e. immediate producers of trade commodities and
strategic military location) to those of secondary importance (i.e. Syro-Palestine
is simply the "transit country" who's only real value resided in some agricultural
or husbandry products).
The
transition from MB II to MB III corresponds to the Second Intermediary Period
in Egyptian history (c. 1670-1550 BCE). During this time we see the appearance
of the vague "Hyksos" rulers on the Egyptian throne of Lower Egypt (the Nile
Delta region). As a result of insufficient textual/historical documents to
help shed light on this elusive period, many possible hypotheses have been
proposed to explain who the Hyksos were, where they originated from, how
they managed to acquire control of the Egyptian throne and the extent of
their contacts with (control of?) the Syro-Palestinian region. The term Hyksos
comes to us from the Greek translation of an Egyptian term referring to 'Rulers
of Foreign Lands'. Such a phrase does not aid in the determination of the
origins of these rulers or their associated culture, but it is generally agreed
that they came from the East. Due to recent archaeological discoveries at
Tel el-Dab'ah in the northeastern Nile Delta region, the capital of the Hyksos
Dynasties (15-16th Dynasties) Avaris has been identified. The 'Hyksos City'
known as Sharuhen is known to have existed somewhere in Syro-Palestine, though
its exact location is still debated. Of the possible sites, the most likely
to be identified as Sharuhen are Tel el-Ajjul and Tel el-Far'ah (S). The
termination of the MB III culture is most commonly associated with a series
of military campaigns against the Hyksos beginning with Ahmose, the first
pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, which inevitably saw the downfall of the Hyksos
and the re-establishment of an Egyptian throne. Later infiltrating campaigns
by Tuthmose III into the land of Syro-Palestine are often associated with
the final chapter of this period.
|
| HIGHLIGHTS: Egyptian Middle Kingdom,
re-urbanization of Syro-Palestinian region. Possibly associated with the
entrance of the Biblical character Abraham from Mesopotamia to the land of
Canaan. The occupation of the Egyptian throne by the Hyksos and their associated
cultural influence on southern Syro-Palestine. First period of occupation
established at Tel el-Far'ah (S). |
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Late Bronze Age 1550/1500-1200
BCE |
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LBI 1550-1400 BCE | LBIIA 1400-1300 BCE
| LBIIB 1300-1200 BCE
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| Throughout the LB settlement patterns hint at the partial continuation
of urban lifestyle, though on a different level than that exhibited during
the peak urbanization period of MB II-III. Many of the large-scale urban
centers of the previous period continued, albeit much smaller in size and
with less control over surrounding rural areas. A perplexing dichotomy surrounds
this brief period of time, due to conflicting evidence regarding the material
culture. The period following the devastating campaigns by the Egyptian pharaohs
of the New Kingdom saw a decline in urban centers and a return to nomadic/pastoral
lifestyles. In contrast to this decline, archaeological discoveries have shown
regions with elaborate feats in architecture (palaces, patrician houses or
'Governor's Residencies', & temples) and the extensive presence of luxury
items (Cypriotic/Mycenaean pottery, ivories, & jewelry). It has been
proposed that after the sieges on the land by early New Kingdom pharaohs
toward the end of the MB III, particularly Tuthmose III, the Syro-Palestine
area found itself to be under Egyptian occupation and control. Areas that
had been of importance to the Egyptians continued to prosper in part because
of the constant shuffle of trade products between the north and south. The
possible imposition of tribute on the region by the Egyptians, or possibly
a recession in areas outside the coastal trade-routes, could have caused the
decline or even abandonment of some urban centers, while increasing others.
(For discussion see: Levy (ed.) 1995, The Archaeology of Society in the Holy
Land, pp. 324-326). |
| HIGHLIGHTS: In Egypt, this period saw the rule of such well-known pharaohs
as Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten), Tutankhamun, & Ramses II. Some have associated
the Moses story and the plagues as having occurred under Ramses II, though
this is highly speculative and has no validity or bearing. |
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Iron Age 1200-539 BCE |
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Iron I 1200-1000 BCE | Iron II 1000-900
BCE | Iron IIB 900-800 BCE | Iron IIC 800-539 BCE
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| Overall, the IA is seen as a period of increase with regard to
the settlement pattern. A distinction can be drawn between the settlement
patterns of northern Syro-Palestine (Samaria), southern hill country (Shechem,
Jerusalem & Hebron) and the coastal plains (as occupied by the Philistines
& Canaanites). More dense occupation occurred in the region around Samaria
than in the south where occupants opted for a more pastoral lifestyle. IA
I saw major fluctuations within the realm of powerful empires both in the
north where we have the complete disappearance of the Hittite Empire, as
well as in the south (Egypt). This coupled with ecologically hard-times (famine
& plagues) caused peoples from all over the Eastern Mediterranean to
be on the move. The might exercised by the 18th and 19th Dynasties seemed
to dwindle after the death of Merneptah, son of Ramses II, and as a result
the control Egypt enjoyed over the Syro-Palestinian region during previous
years was disrupted. The discovery of the Merneptah Stele brought to light
the earliest mention of the entity of "Israel". What exactly constitutes this
entity is still disputed, though it is probable that this refers to a geographical
region, perhaps the central hill country of modern-day Israel, and the people
who inhabited it. Other groups were also on the move like the Aramaeans (nomads
from Syria) and the Sea Peoples (of questionable & disputed origin, though
frequently identified with the Aegean). Groups such as these intermingled
with known 'settled' populations of the area like the Phoenicians (in modern
day Lebanon) and Philistines (though they are often associated as a tribe
within the 'Sea Peoples' phenomenon) often causing these local populaces
to migrate themselves.
IA
IIA is often seen as the time of Samuel, Saul, the Judges, and the beginning
of the 'United Monarchy' period under the best known 'Israelite king' David
and his son Solomon. Under their rule, the northern regions of Syro-Palestine
(known as "Ephraim" or Israel) were harshly treated and never truly incorporated
with the southern regions of Judah. With the death of Solomon, a separation
occurred resulting in a strict territorial division between the northern tribes
of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah, thereby beginning the era of
the divided monarchy in IA IIB. Constant conflict occurred between these
two kingdoms until the appearance of the Assyrian Empire during the early
eighth century, which sought to conquer most of the Eastern Mediterranean.
A brief alliance between Israel, Judah and some of the coastal areas occurred
to deter the campaign of Assyrians, though soon after internal conflict again
arose. Eventually Assyria was successful in conquering the Northern Kingdom
and forcing the Southern Kingdom into submission and continued to dominate
this region up until the seventh century BCE. Under the control of a weakening
Assyrian Empire, the Judean king Josiah (c. 639-609 BCE) began rebuilding
the south, during which he allegedly uncovered the biblical book of Deuteronomy
(621 BCE) and thereby began his religious reform of the cult in Jerusalem.
Then with the decline of the Assyrians came a new threat from the east, the
Babylonians. The attempted revolt of Josiah's son Jehoiakim in 600 BCE against
the Babylonians resulted in the destruction of Judah and began the forced
exile of its elite to Babylon; thus beginning the period of the Babylonian
Exile. To end the IA IIC, another shift in political domination occurred.
From 585 BCE on the Persian king Cyrus successfully revolted against his
grandfather and oppressor, withstood joint efforts against him by the Egyptians
and the Lydians (of coastal Anatolia), and turned his forces against the
mighty Babylonian Empire. In 539 BCE Cyrus II entered Babylon, thus ending
the period of the Babylonian exile and ushering in a new period of prosperity
and reconstruction within the region of the Eastern Mediterranean under the
Persians.
|
| HIGHLIGHTS: Samuel and Saul, the United Monarchy under David and Solomon,
the Divided Monarchy, formation of the concept of 'Israel', Assyrian and
Babylonian Empires, Josiah and his reforms- the 'discovery' of the book of
Deuteronomy, and the Babylonian Exile. |
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|
Persian Period (a.k.a
ACHAEMENIDS) 539-332 BCE |
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| Beginning after the successful liberation and conquering campaign
of the Eastern Mediterranean by the Persian king Cyrus II, this period marks
the time when the once powerful Babylonians were destroyed and a relative
period of peace and prosperity came over the area. As a gesture for peace
and stability, Cyrus II permitted the return of all political exiles and
their gods to their homelands, among them the Judeans from the central/southern
hill country of Syro-Palestine. Under his control, we see the beginning division
of the Eastern Mediterranean into satrapies or provinces. With the death
of Cyrus II in 530 BCE, came his son Cambyses who led a successful military
campaign, in alliance with the Greek mercenaries, against the Egyptians.
With Egypt now under Persian control, Cambyses set off for home, during which
he received word of internal strife and rebellion. Cambyses never reached
his destination for he met his death under questionable circumstances in
522 BCE, bringing Darius I to the throne. It appears that further turmoil
plagued the Persian Empire under Darius I. This is evident in the mention
of uprisings in most of the Persian Empire: the east, south and northwest,
though there is no mention of rebellious activity in Syro-Palestine. Under
Darius I, the empire reached its peak. "Its territory extended from the Danube
in the Balkans to the Indus River in the east, from Egypt and Libya in the
south to the Aral Sea and the Jaxartes River in the northeast" (Ahlström,
G., 1993 The History of Ancient Palestine, p. 853). After Darius II and for
successive generations, several Persian kings assumed control over the vast
empire, all set on one goal, the conquering of their greatest rivals, the
Greeks. Finally, around 334 BCE Alexander of Macedonia, better known as 'Alexander
the Great', crossed the Hellespont to begin his conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean.
The Persians could not withstand the mightiest and most successful military
leader known in this region and in 332 BCE Alexander had successfully run
Darius III from Babylon, resulting in the capture of the city. Alexander's
success was finalized with the death of Darius III at the hands of his own
officials in 330 BCE. |
| HIGHLIGHTS: Cyrus II and the following line of Persian rulers, the return
of Exiled Judeans to their homeland from Babylon, Alexander the Great and
his successful conquest of the Persian Empire. |
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Hellenistic Period 332-63
BCE |
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Early Hellenistic 332-198 BCE | Late Hellenistic
198-63 BCE
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| The conquests of the Macedonian military leader Alexander beginning
in 334 BCE with the Battle of Issus, brought an end to Persian control of
the Eastern Mediterranean and began a new period, the Early Hellenistic.
By 331 BCE Alexander successfully conquered the Eastern Mediterranean by
defeating the Egyptians and founding his new capital city on the coastal
Delta, Alexandria. Alexander, for reasons of either genuine desire or political
motivation, sought to unify the region under the coat of the idealized Hellenistic
culture. In an effort to solidify this unification, he directed many of his
Greek military generals to take wives from the various areas now under their
dominion. He, himself, inter-married with a Persian princess and was often
chastised for his apparent preference of eastern culture and lifestyle. Due
to Alexander's unnaturally early death in 323 BCE, the grand empire he had
succeeded in bringing under Hellenistic control was divided between two of
his top generals, Seleucid (for the northern regions, i.e. Anatolia) and
Ptolemais (for southern regions, i.e. Egypt). Palestine, first under Ptolemaic
rule, enjoyed extensive Hellenization. The transition from the Early to Late
Hellenistic period saw constant competition between the two smaller empires,
eventually leading to the defeat of the Ptolemies in 198 BCE by the Seleucid
ruler Antiochus III, after which time 'Palestine' found itself under Seleucid
control.
Starting
in 170 BCE Antiochus IV Epiphany began one of two military campaigns into
Egypt. On his return in 169 BCE, he sacked and defiled the Jerusalem temple.
After his second campaign into Egypt, a period of extensive persecution began
in 167 BCE with massacres in Jerusalem, the abolishment of the Jewish cult,
and the establishment of the cult of Jupiter within the Jerusalem temple.
These events led to the initially unsuccessful revolt in 166 BCE, led by
Mattathias and commonly known as the Maccabean Revolt or First Jewish Revolt.
In 164 BCE, relative peace covered the kingdom thus permitting the purification
of the Jewish temple. Soon after in 160 BCE, an alliance was drawn between
Seleucid Antiochus V and the Romans. This alliance was renewed again in 139
BCE and because of intermittent Roman activity in the orient, the stage was
set for the entrance of Roman general Pompée between 66-62 BCE. In
64 BCE Syria was proclaimed a Roman province and soon thereafter in 63 BCE
'Palestine' also became incorporated when Pompée took Jerusalem.
|
| HIGHLIGHTS: Alexander the Great, Unification of Eastern Mediterranean under
Hellenistic Culture, Seleucids and Ptolemies, Desecration of Jerusalem Temple,
First Jewish (a.k.a. Maccabean) Revolt, Restoration of Jerusalem Temple,
Entrance of Rome. |
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Roman Period 63 BCE-
324 CE |
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Early Roman 63 BCE-135 CE | Late Roman 135-324
CE
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| The Early Roman Period began with the entrance of Pompée
into the Orient. He succeeded to incorporate Syria as a Roman province in
64 BCE and that following year in 63 BCE, Pompée took Jerusalem thereby
incorporating 'Palestine' as a Roman province as well. Cleopatra VII came
to the throne of Egypt in 51 BCE and continued to reign until her suicide
by cobra bite in 30 BCE. In 44 BCE the Roman emperor Ceasar was assassinated,
bringing Antoine to power. In 41 BCE Antione appoints Herod ("the Great")
as Tetrarch of 'Palestine', whose official span of rule ranged between 37
BCE - 4 CE. It is under the rule of Herod that we see monumental building
efforts throughout the region and the supposed birth and life of Jesus of
Nazareth. In the period following Herod's death we see the entrance and departure
of many Roman governors in the region of 'Palestine'. John the Baptist and
his prophesying about the coming messiah and the beginning of Jesus' ministry
are believed to have occurred during 27 BCE. Pontius Pilate enters the scene
in 26 BCE and continues to govern the region up till 36 CE. It is said that
Jesus was condemned by Pontius Pilate sometime during 29 CE and later died
by crucifixion in 30 CE.
The
following years saw multiple transitions between various Roman Emperors among
whom can be mentioned Caligula (37-41 CE), Claude (41-54 CE), and Nero (54-68
CE). A partial return to the grandeur last witnessed during the rule of Herod
the Great was felt throughout the region of 'Palestine' and it is during
the period between 45-58 CE, the 1st through 3rd missions of Paul. In 70
CE the Jerusalem temple is again destroyed by the Romans and the later seige
and destruction of Masada, ending yet another revolt. The epoch of the Roman
Empire came between 114 - 116 CE with the annexation of the Roman provinces
of Armenia, Assyria and Mesopotamia. From 117-138 we have the reign of Emperor
Hadrian under whose rule we have the Bar-Kochba (a.k.a. Second Jewish) Revolt
between 132-135 CE. The Roman response to this revolt was swift and in 135
CE, the Jerusalem temple was lost again and initiated as a sanctuary of tribute
to both Zeus and Hadrian. From this point on the province of Judea becomes
the province of 'Syria-Palestine'. The Late Roman period, from 135-324 CE
was highlighted by many Roman Emperors. It is during this period we see the
development of divisions within Judaism, slowly developing toward the eventual
schism of "Christ sympathizers" or Judeo-Christians into what later became
recognized as Christianity. It seems that throughout this period, either
Jews or Judeo-Christians were repeatedly persecuted by the Romans or by one
another. Then in 324, Constantine came into power and gave Christianity the
upper hand by his ordaining it as the official religion of the empire. Thus
beginning the Byzantine Period.
|
| HIGHLIGHTS: Alexander the Great, Unification of Eastern Mediterranean under
Hellenistic Culture, Seleucids and Ptolemies, Desecration of Jerusalem Temple,
First Jewish (a.k.a. Maccabean) Revolt, Restoration of Jerusalem Temple,
Entrance of Rome. |
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Byzantine Period 325-640
CE |
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Early Byzantine 325-640 CE | Late Byzantine
491-640 CE
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Early Islamic Period
640-1174 CE |
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| The Islamic Period began officially
with the conquest of Palestine by the Ummayad dynasty in 636 CE. To Be Completed... |
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Crusader Period 1099-1291
CE |
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|
On July 15, 1099 Jerusalem fell to
the Crusaders after a five week siege and the victors proceeded to massacre
the city's Muslims and Jews. After 460 years of Muslim rule the Crusaders
restored Jerusalem to Christian hands, and declared the city the capital of
the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
(source: http://www.snunit.org.il/njeru/ef1.htm)
To Be Completed... |
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Late Islamic Period
1174-1917 CE |
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| The Islamic Period began officially
with the conquest of Palestine by the Ummayad dynasty in 636 CE. To Be Completed... |
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British Mandate 1917-1948
CE |
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| It was only after World War I, at the
Paris Peace Conference, that the name "Palestine" was applied to a
clearly defined piece of territory - the
area which today comprises Israel and Jordan. It was agreed that "Palestine" was to become a League of Nations Mandate, entrusted
to Great Britain.
Under the terms of the Mandate, Britain's
principal obligation was to facilitate the implementation of the Balfour
Declaration of November 2, 1917, which
pledged "the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people." No territorial restrictions whatsoever - neither
east nor west of the Jordan River were placed on the Jewish National Home. In fact, the Mandate stipulated
that Britain was to "facilitate Jewish immigration under suitable conditions and shall encourage close settlement
by Jews on the land."
(source: http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/100/maps/mandate.html)
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State of Israel - Present |
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| It Israel gained its independence May
14, 1948 from the League of Nations mandate under British administration. |
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